The measurement of biological indicators is of interest for a variety of medical disorders. Various systems have been developed to measure biological indicators from within the living body of various animals (e.g. mammals) via an implantable device.
Existing implantable devices have the potential to create high local temperatures inside the living body. Often power provided from external sources results in an increase in local temperature around the implantable device. Often transmission of information from the implantable device results in an increase in local temperature around the implantable device. The living body, however, cannot tolerate high internal temperatures. High internal temperatures often lead to tissue death [e.g. reference 5, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety].
Another issue facing implantable devices is the formation of a foreign body capsule in the tissue of the living body around the implantable device. Fibrogen and other proteins bind to the device surface shortly after implantation in a process known as biofouling. Macrophages bind to the receptors on these proteins releasing growth factor β and other inflammatory cytokines. Procollagen is synthesized and becomes crosslinked after secretion into the extracellular space gradually contributing to formation of a dense fibrous foreign body capsule. The dense capsule prevents the implantable device from interfacing with the living body and thereby often hinders the operation of the implantable device [e.g. reference 6, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety].
These issues have been addressed to some extent by a miniaturized implantable electrochemical sensor device disclosed in afore mentioned related U.S. application Ser. No. 14/174,827, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. However, such miniaturized implantable electrochemical sensor is not fully integrated (e.g. monolithically integrated) as some of its elements are glued onto the device.
In particular, fully wireless implants are being considered as the future of health care system. These implants can improve the health care system in many aspects. The ultra-small scale design of these devices promises many advantages compared to their macro counterparts. This size scale is perceived to minimize the foreign body response to an implant. It would also enable easy implantation and explantation procedures. Finally, such implants can minimize the permanent risk of infection and irritation associated with wired systems currently being used, such as transcutaneous continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) systems. In many situations, CGM system being a relevant example, a remotely powered implanted sensor can monitor levels of signals of interest and transmit data to an external receiver avoiding risks associated with such wired implants. To allow for reliable power delivery as well as minimizing foreign body response, both the sensor's size and power dissipation can be minimized. The smallest reported system up to now occupies approximately 8×4×1 mm3 [e.g. reference 2, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety]. A wirelessly powered contact lens based CGM sensor has also been reported that consumes about 3 μW [e.g. reference 3, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety]. It follows that the present disclosure provides methods and devices which can be used to fabricate miniature size implantable devices for applications related to measurement of body fluids and which are not limited to measurement in a specific environment and can be used for a broad range of applications.